Retirement plans established under Section 401(k) of the Internal Revenue Code, commonly referred to as 401(k) plans, have become one of the most popular types of employer-sponsored retirement plans.

What is a 401(k) plan?

A 401(k) plan is an employer-sponsored retirement savings plan that offers significant tax benefits while helping you plan for the future. You contribute to the plan via payroll deduction, which can make it easier for you to save for retirement. One important feature of a 401(k) plan is your ability to make pre-tax contributions to the plan. Pre-tax means that your contributions are deducted from your pay and transferred to the 401(k) plan before federal (and most state) income taxes are calculated. This reduces your current taxable income — you don’t pay income taxes on the amount you contribute, or any investment gains on your contributions, until you receive payments from the plan.

For example, Melissa earns $50,000 annually. She contributes $5,000 of her pay to her employer’s 401(k) plan on a pre-tax basis. As a result, Melissa’s taxable income is now $45,000. She isn’t taxed on her contributions ($5,000), or any investment earnings, until she receives a distribution from the plan.

You may also be able to make Roth contributions to your 401(k) plan. Roth 401(k) contributions are made on an after-tax basis, just like Roth IRA contributions. Unlike pre-tax contributions to a 401(k) plan, there’s no up-front tax benefit — your contributions are deducted from your pay and transferred to the plan after taxes are calculated. But a distribution from your Roth 401(k) account is entirely free from federal income tax if the distribution is qualified. (See the section below on income tax consequences for more detail.)

How Much Can I Contribute?

Generally, you can contribute up to $20,500 ($27,000 if you’re age 50 or older) to a 401(k) plan in 2022 (unless your plan imposes lower limits). If your plan allows Roth 401(k) contributions, you can split your contribution between pre-tax and Roth contributions any way you wish.

Keep in mind that if you also contribute to another employer’s 401(k), 403(b), SIMPLE, or SAR-SEP plan, your total contributions to all of these plans — both pre-tax and Roth — can’t exceed $20,500 in 2022 ($27,000 if you’re age 50 or older). It’s up to you to make sure you don’t exceed these limits if you contribute to plans of more than one employer.

When Can I Contribute?

While a 401(k) plan can make you wait up to a year to participate, many plans let you to begin contributing with your first paycheck. Some plans also provide for automatic enrollment. If you’ve been automatically enrolled, make sure to check that your default contribution rate and investments are appropriate for your circumstances.

Can I Also Contribute to an IRA?

Yes. Your participation in a 401(k) plan has no impact on your ability to contribute to an IRA (Roth or traditional). You can contribute up to $6,000 to an IRA in 2022 ($7,000 if you’re age 50 or older) if you have at least that much in earned income. Your ability to make deductible contributions to a traditional IRA may be limited if you participate in a 401(k) plan, depending on your salary level.

What Are the Income Tax Consequences of Contributing to a 401(k) Plan?

When you make pre-tax 401(k) contributions, you don’t pay current income taxes on those dollars. But your contributions and investment earnings are fully taxable when you receive a distribution from the plan. In contrast, Roth 401(k) contributions are subject to income taxes up front, but qualified distributions of your contributions and earnings are entirely free from federal income tax. A distribution is qualified if it meets the following requirements:

The five-year waiting period for qualified distributions starts on January 1 of the year you make your first Roth contribution to the 401(k) plan. For example, if you make your first Roth contribution to your employer’s 401(k) plan in December 2022, your five-year waiting period begins January 1, 2022, and ends on December 31, 2026.

Withdrawals from pre-tax accounts prior to age 59½ and non-qualified withdrawals from Roth accounts will be subject to regular income taxes and a 10 percent penalty tax, unless an exception applies.

What about Employer Contributions?

Employers don’t have to contribute to 401(k) plans, but many will match all or part of your contributions. Your employer can match your Roth contributions, your pre-tax contributions, or both. But your employer’s contributions are always made on a pre-tax basis, even if they match your Roth contributions. That is, your employer’s contributions, and investment earnings on those contributions, are always taxable to you when you receive a distribution from the plan.

Try to contribute as much as necessary to get the maximum matching contribution from your employer. This is essentially free money that can help you pursue your retirement goals.

Should I Make Pre-tax or Roth Contributions (If Allowed)?

If you think you’ll be in a higher tax bracket when you retire, Roth 401(k) contributions may be more appealing, since future withdrawals, assuming they’re qualified, will generally be tax free. However, if you think you’ll be in a lower tax bracket when you retire, pre-tax 401(k) contributions may be more appropriate because your contributions reduce your taxable income now. Your investment horizon and projected investment results are also important factors.

What Happens When I Terminate Employment?

When you terminate employment, you generally forfeit all contributions that haven’t vested. (Vesting means that you own the contributions.) Your contributions and the earnings on them are always 100 percent vested. But your 401(k) plan may require up to six years of service before you fully vest in employer matching contributions and associated earnings (although some plans have a much faster vesting schedule).

When you terminate employment, you can generally leave your money in your 401(k) plan, although some plans require that you withdraw your funds once you reach the plan’s normal retirement age (typically age 65). Your plan may also “cash you out” if your vested balance is $5,000 or less, but if your payment is more than $1,000, the plan generally must roll your funds into an IRA established on your behalf, unless you elect to receive your payment in cash. [This $1,000 limit is determined separately for your Roth 401(k) account and the rest of your funds in the 401(k) plan.]

You can also roll all or part of your Roth 401(k) dollars over to a Roth IRA, and your non-Roth dollars to a traditional IRA. You may also be able to convert your non-Roth dollars to a Roth IRA, but income taxes will apply to any tax-deferred amounts in the year of conversion. You may also be able to roll your funds into another employer’s plans that accepts rollovers.

Finally, you may also be able to take a cash distribution of your contributions and earnings, as well as any vested employer amounts. However, keep in mind that any tax-deferred funds will be subject to income taxes and a possible 10% penalty tax if you’re under age 59½, unless an exception applies.

When considering a rollover, to either an IRA or to another employer’s retirement plan, you should consider carefully the investment options, fees and expenses, services, ability to make penalty-free withdrawals, degree of creditor protection, and distribution requirements associated with each option.

What Else Do I Need to Know?

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.

At any age, health care is a priority. When you retire, however, you will probably focus more on health care than ever before. Staying healthy is your goal, and this can mean more visits to the doctor for preventive tests and routine checkups. There’s also a chance that your health will decline as you grow older, increasing your need for costly prescription drugs or medical treatments. That’s why having health insurance is extremely important.

Retirement—Your Changing Health Insurance Needs

If you are 65 or older when you retire, your worries may lessen when it comes to paying for health care—you are most likely eligible for certain health benefits from Medicare, a federal health insurance program, upon your 65th birthday. But if you retire before age 65, you’ll need some way to pay for your health care until Medicare kicks in. Generous employers may offer extensive health insurance coverage to their retiring employees, but this is the exception rather than the rule. If your employer doesn’t extend health benefits to you, you may need to buy a private health insurance policy (which may be costly), extend your employer-sponsored coverage through COBRA, or purchase an individual health insurance policy through either a state-based or federal health insurance Exchange Marketplace.

But remember, Medicare won’t pay for long-term care if you ever need it. You’ll need to pay for that out of pocket or rely on benefits from long-term care insurance (LTCI) or, if your assets and/or income are low enough to allow you to qualify, Medicaid.

More about Medicare

As mentioned, most Americans automatically become entitled to Medicare when they turn 65. In fact, if you’re already receiving Social Security benefits, you won’t even have to apply—you’ll be automatically enrolled in Medicare. However, you will have to decide whether you need only Part A coverage (which is premium-free for most retirees) or if you want to also purchase Part B coverage. Part A, commonly referred to as the hospital insurance portion of Medicare, can help pay for your home health care, hospice care, and inpatient hospital care. Part B helps cover other medical care such as physician care, laboratory tests, and physical therapy. You may also choose to enroll in a managed care plan or private fee-for-service plan under Medicare Part C (Medicare Advantage) if you want to pay fewer out-of-pocket health-care costs. If you don’t already have adequate prescription drug coverage, you should also consider joining a Medicare prescription drug plan offered in your area by a private company or insurer that has been approved by Medicare.

Unfortunately, Medicare won’t cover all of your health-care expenses. For some types of care, you’ll have to satisfy a deductible and make co-payments. That’s why many retirees purchase a Medigap policy.

However, it’s illegal for an insurance company to sell you a Medigap policy that substantially duplicates any existing coverage you have, including Medicare coverage. You don’t need and can’t buy a Medigap policy if you’re enrolled in a Medicare Advantage (Part C) plan, and you may not need it if you’re covered by an employer-sponsored health plan after you retire or have coverage through your spouse.

What Is Medigap?

Unless you can afford to pay for the things that Original Medicare (Parts A and B) doesn’t cover, including the annual co-payments and deductibles that apply to certain types of care, you may want to buy some type of Medigap policy when you sign up for Medicare Part B. There are eight standardized plans available to individuals new to Medicare (except in Massachusetts, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, which have their own standardized plans). Each of these policies offers certain basic core benefits, and all but the most basic policy (Plan A) offer various combinations of additional benefits designed to cover what Medicare does not. Although not all Medigap plans are available in every state, you should be able to find a plan that best meets your needs and your budget.

When you first enroll in Medicare Part B at age 65 or older, you have a six-month Medigap open enrollment period. During that time, you have a right to buy the Medigap policy of your choice from a private insurance company, regardless of any health problems you may have. The company cannot refuse you a policy or charge you more than other open enrollment applicants.

Thinking about the Future—Long-Term Care Insurance and Medicaid

The possibility of a prolonged stay in a nursing home weighs heavily on the minds of many older Americans and their families. That’s hardly surprising, especially considering the high cost of long-term care.

Many people in their 50s and 60s look into purchasing LTCI. A good LTCI policy can cover the cost of care in a nursing home, an assisted-living facility, or even your own home. But if you’re interested, don’t wait too long to buy it—you’ll need to be in good health. In addition, the older you are, the higher the premium you’ll pay.

You may also be able to rely on Medicaid to pay for long-term care if your assets and/or income are low enough to allow you to qualify. But check first with a financial professional or an attorney experienced in Medicaid planning. The rules surrounding this issue are numerous and complicated and can affect you, your spouse, and your beneficiaries and/or heirs.

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.

Why do so many people never obtain the financial independence that they desire? Often it’s because they just don’t take that first step—getting started. Besides procrastination, other excuses people make are that investing is too risky, too complicated, too time consuming, and only for the rich.

The fact is, there’s nothing complicated about common investing techniques, and it usually doesn’t take much time to understand the basics. One of the biggest risks you face is not educating yourself about which investments may be able to help you pursue your financial goals and how to approach the investing process.

Saving Versus Investing

Both saving and investing have a place in your finances. However, don’t confuse the two. Saving is the process of setting aside money to be used for a financial goal, whether that is done as part of a workplace retirement savings plan, an individual retirement account, a bank savings account, or some other savings vehicle. Investing is the process of deciding what you do with those savings. Some investments are designed to help protect your principal—the initial amount you’ve set aside—but may provide relatively little or no return. Other investments can go up or down in value and may or may not pay interest or dividends. Stocks, bonds, cash alternatives, precious metals, and real estate all represent investments; mutual funds are a way to purchase such investments and also are themselves an investment.

Note: Before investing in a mutual fund, carefully consider its investment objectives, risks, charges, and fees, which can be found in the prospectus available from the fund. Read the prospectus carefully before investing.

Why Invest?

You invest for the future, and the future is expensive. For example, because people are living longer, retirement costs are often higher than many people expect. Though all investing involves the possibility of loss, including the loss of principal, and there can be no guarantee that any investment strategy will be successful, investing is one way to try to prepare for that future.

You have to take responsibility for your own finances, even if you need expert help to do so. Government programs such as Social Security will probably play a less significant role for you than they did for previous generations. Corporations are switching from guaranteed pensions to plans that require you to make contributions and choose investments. The better you manage your dollars, the more likely it is that you’ll have the money to make the future what you want it to be.

Because everyone has different goals and expectations, everyone has different reasons for investing. Understanding how to match those reasons with your investments is simply one aspect of managing your money to provide a comfortable life and financial security for you and your family.

What Is the Best Way to Invest?

Before You Start

Organize your finances to help manage your money more efficiently. Remember, investing is just one component of your overall financial plan. Get a clear picture of where you are today.

What’s your net worth? Compare your assets with your liabilities. Look at your cash flow. Be clear on where your income is going each month. List your expenses. You can typically identify enough expenses to account for at least 95 percent of your income. If not, go back and look again. You could use those lost dollars for investing. Are you drowning in credit card debt? If so, pay it off as quickly as possible before you start investing. Every dollar that you save in interest charges is one more dollar that you can invest for your future.

Establish a solid financial base: Make sure you have an adequate emergency fund, sufficient insurance coverage, and a realistic budget. Also, take full advantage of benefits and retirement plans that your employer offers.

Understand the Impact of Time

Take advantage of the power of compounding. Compounding is the earning of interest on interest, or the reinvestment of income. For instance, if you invest $1,000 and get a return of 8 percent, you will earn $80. By reinvesting the earnings and assuming the same rate of return, the following year you will earn $86.40 on your $1,080 investment. The following year, $1,166.40 will earn $93.31. (This hypothetical example is intended as an illustration and does not reflect the performance of a specific investment).

Use the Rule of 72 to judge an investment’s potential. Divide the projected return into 72. The answer is the number of years that it will take for the investment to double in value. For example, an investment that earns 8 percent per year will double in 9 years.

Consider Whether You Need Expert Help

If you have the time and energy to educate yourself about investing, you may not feel you need assistance. However, for many people—especially those with substantial assets and multiple investment accounts—it may be worth getting expert help in creating a financial plan that integrates long-term financial goals such as retirement with other, more short-term needs. However, be aware that all investment involves risk, including the potential loss of principal, and there can be no guarantee that any investment strategy will be successful.

Review Your Progress

Financial management is an ongoing process. Keep good records and recalculate your net worth annually. This will help you for tax purposes, and show you how your investments are doing over time. Once you take that first step of getting started, you will be better able to manage your money to pay for today’s needs and pursue tomorrow’s goals.

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.

When developing your estate plan, you can do well by doing good. Leaving money to charity rewards you in many ways. It gives you a sense of personal satisfaction, and it can save you money in estate taxes.

A Few Words about Transfer Taxes

The federal government taxes transfers of wealth you make to others, both during your life and at your death. In 2022, generally, the federal gift and estate tax is imposed on transfers in excess of $12,060,000 ($11,700,000 in 2021) and at a top rate of 40 percent. There is also a separate generation-skipping transfer (GST) tax that is imposed on transfers made to grandchildren and lower generations. For 2022, there is a $12,060,000 ($11,700,000 in 2021) exemption and the top rate is 40 percent.

Note: The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, signed into law in December 2017, doubled the gift and estate tax basic exclusion amount and the GST tax exemption to $11,180,000 in 2018. After 2025, they are scheduled to revert to their pre-2018 levels and cut by about one-half.

You may also be subject to state transfer taxes.

Careful planning is needed to minimize transfer taxes, and charitable giving can play an important role in your estate plan. By leaving money to charity the full amount of your charitable gift may be deducted from the value of your gift or taxable estate.

Make an Outright Bequest in Your Will

The easiest and most direct way to make a charitable gift is by an outright bequest of cash in your will. Making an outright bequest requires only a short paragraph in your will that names the charitable beneficiary and states the amount of your gift. The outright bequest is especially appropriate when the amount of your gift is relatively small, or when you want the funds to go to the charity without strings attached.

Make a Charity the Beneficiary of an IRA or Retirement Plan

If you have funds in an IRA or employer-sponsored retirement plan, you can name your favorite charity as a beneficiary. Naming a charity as beneficiary can provide double tax savings. First, the charitable gift will be deductible for estate tax purposes. Second, the charity will not have to pay any income tax on the funds it receives. This double benefit can save combined taxes that otherwise could eat up a substantial portion of your retirement account.

Use a Charitable Trust

Another way for you to make charitable gifts is to create a charitable trust. There are many types of charitable trusts, the most common of which include the charitable lead trust and the charitable remainder trust.

A charitable lead trust pays income to your chosen charity for a certain period of years after your death. Once that period is up, the trust principal passes to your family members or other heirs. The trust is known as a charitable lead trust because the charity gets the first, or lead, interest.

A charitable remainder trust is the mirror image of the charitable lead trust. Trust income is payable to your family members or other heirs for a period of years after your death or for the lifetime of one or more beneficiaries. Then, the principal goes to your favorite charity. The trust is known as a charitable remainder trust because the charity gets the remainder interest. Depending on which type of trust you use, the dollar value of the lead (income) interest or the remainder interest produces the estate tax charitable deduction.

Note: There are costs and expenses associated with the creation of these legal instruments.

Why Use a Charitable Lead Trust?

The charitable lead trust is an excellent estate planning vehicle if you are optimistic about the future performance of the investments in the trust. If created properly, a charitable lead trust allows you to keep an asset in the family while being an effective tax-minimization device.

For example, you create a $1 million charitable lead trust. The trust provides for fixed annual payments of $80,000 (or 8 percent of the initial $1 million value of the trust) to ABC Charity for 25 years. At the end of the 25-year period, the entire trust principal goes outright to your beneficiaries. To figure the amount of the charitable deduction, you have to value the 25-year income interest going to ABC Charity. To do this, you use IRS tables. Based on these tables, the value of the income interest can be high—for example, $900,000. This means that your estate gets a $900,000 charitable deduction when you die, and only $100,000 of the $1 million gift is subject to estate tax.

Why Use a Charitable Remainder Trust?

A charitable remainder trust takes advantage of the fact that lifetime charitable giving generally results in tax savings when compared to testamentary charitable giving. A donation to a charitable remainder trust has the same estate tax effect as a bequest because, at your death, the donated asset has been removed from your estate. Be aware, however, that a portion of the donation is brought back into your estate through the charitable income tax deduction.

Also, a charitable remainder trust can be beneficial because it provides your family members with a stream of current income—a desirable feature if your family members won’t have enough income from other sources.

For example, you create a $1 million charitable remainder trust. The trust provides that a fixed annual payment be paid to your beneficiaries for a period not to exceed 20 years. At the end of that period, the entire trust principal goes outright to ABC Charity. To figure the amount of the charitable deduction, you have to value the remainder interest going to ABC Charity, using IRS tables. This is a complicated numbers game. Trial computations are needed to see what combination of the annual payment amount and the duration of annual payments will produce the desired charitable deduction and income stream to the family.

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.

Employers can offer 401(k) plan participants the opportunity to make Roth 401(k) contributions. If you’re lucky enough to work for an employer who offers this option, Roth contributions could play an important role in maximizing your retirement income.

What Is a Roth 401(k)?

A Roth 401(k) is simply a traditional 401(k) plan that accepts Roth 401(k) contributions. Roth 401(k) contributions are made on an after-tax basis, just like Roth IRA contributions. This means there’s no up-front tax benefit, but if certain conditions are met, your Roth 401(k) contributions and all accumulated investment earnings on those contributions are free from federal income tax when distributed from the plan. (403(b) and 457(b) plans can also allow Roth contributions.)

Who Can Contribute?

Unlike Roth IRAs, where you can’t contribute if you earn more than a certain dollar amount, you can make Roth contributions, regardless of your salary level, as soon as you are eligible to participate in the 401(k) plan. And while a 401(k) plan can require employees to wait up to one year before they become eligible to contribute, many plans allow you to contribute beginning with your first paycheck.

How Much Can I Contribute?

There’s an overall cap on your combined pre-tax and Roth 401(k) contributions. In 2022, you can contribute up to $20,500 ($27,000 if you’re age 50 or older) to a 401(k) plan. You can split your contribution between Roth and pre-tax contributions any way you wish. For example, you can make $10,000 of Roth contributions and $10,500 of pre-tax 401(k) contributions. It’s up to you. But keep in mind that if you also contribute to another employer’s 401(k), 403(b), SIMPLE, or SAR-SEP plan, your total contributions to all of these plans—both pre-tax and Roth—can’t exceed $20,500 in 2022 ($27,000 if you’re age 50 or older). It’s up to you to make sure you don’t exceed these limits if you contribute to plans of more than one employer.

Can I Also Contribute to an IRA?

Yes. Your participation in a 401(k) plan has no impact on your ability to contribute to an IRA (Roth or traditional). You can contribute up to $6,000 to an IRA in 2022 ($7,000 if you’re age 50 or older). Your ability to contribute to a Roth IRA may be limited if your modified adjusted gross income (MAGI) exceeds certain levels. Similarly, your ability to make deductible contributions to a traditional IRA may be limited if your MAGI exceeds certain levels and you (or your spouse) participate in a 401(k) plan.

Are Distributions Really Tax Free?

Because your Roth 401(k) contributions are made on an after-tax basis, they’re always free from federal income tax when distributed from the plan. Investment earnings on your Roth contributions are tax free if you meet the requirements for a qualified distribution.

In general, a distribution from your Roth 401(k) account is qualified if it satisfies both of the following requirements:

The five-year waiting period for qualified distributions starts on January 1 of the year you make your first Roth contribution to the 401(k) plan. For example, if you make your first Roth contribution to your employer’s 401(k) plan in December 2022, your five-year waiting period begins January 1, 2022, and ends on December 31, 2026. If you participate in more than one Roth 401(k) plan, your five-year waiting period is generally determined separately for each employer’s plan. But if you change employers and directly roll over your Roth 401(k) account from your prior employer’s plan to your new employer’s Roth 401(k) plan (assuming the new plan accepts rollovers), the five-year waiting period for your new plan starts instead with the year you made your first contribution to the earlier plan.

If your distribution isn’t qualified (for example, if you receive a payout before the five-year waiting period has elapsed), the portion of your distribution that represents investment earnings on your Roth contributions will be taxable, and will be subject to a 10 percent early distribution penalty unless you’re 59½ (55 in some cases) or another exception applies. You can generally avoid taxation by rolling all or part of your distribution over into a Roth IRA or into another employer’s Roth 401(k) or 403(b) plan, if that plan accepts Roth rollovers. (State income tax treatment of Roth 401(k) contributions may differ from the federal rules.)

If you contribute to both a Roth 401(k) and a Roth IRA, a separate five-year waiting period applies to each. Your Roth IRA five-year waiting period begins with the first year that you make a regular or rollover contribution to any Roth IRA.

What about Employer Contributions?

Employers don’t have to contribute to 401(k) plans, but many will match all or part of your contributions. Your employer can match your Roth contributions, your pre-tax contributions, or both. But your employer’s contributions are always made on a pre-tax basis, even if they match your Roth contributions. That is, your employer’s contributions, and investment earnings on those contributions, are not taxed until you receive a distribution from the plan. Your 401(k) plan may require up to six years of service before you fully own employer matching contributions. (Note: If your plan is a SIMPLE 401(k) plan, a safe-harbor 401(k) plan, or includes a qualified automatic contribution arrangement (QACA) your employer is required to make a contribution on your behalf, and special vesting rules apply.)

Should I Make Pre-Tax or Roth 401(k) Contributions?

When you make pre-tax 401(k) contributions, you don’t pay current income taxes on those dollars (which means more take-home pay compared to an after-tax Roth contribution of the same amount). But your contributions and investment earnings are fully taxable when you receive a distribution from the plan. In contrast, Roth 401(k) contributions are subject to income taxes up front, but qualified distributions of your contributions and earnings are entirely free from federal income tax.

Which is the better option depends upon your personal situation. If you think you’ll be in a similar or higher tax bracket when you retire, Roth 401(k) contributions may be more appealing, since you’ll effectively lock in today’s lower tax rates. However, if you think you’ll be in a lower tax bracket when you retire, pre-tax 401(k) contributions may be more appropriate. Your investment horizon and projected investment results are also important factors. A financial professional can help you determine which course is best for you.

Whichever you choose—Roth or pre-tax—make sure you contribute as much as necessary to get the maximum matching contribution from your employer. This is essentially free money that can help you pursue your retirement goals.

What Happens When I Terminate Employment?

When you terminate employment, you generally forfeit all employer contributions (and earnings on them) that haven’t vested. Vesting means that you own the contributions and any associated earnings. Your contributions, Roth and pre-tax, are always 100 percent vested. But your 401(k) plan may require up to six years of service before you fully vest in employer matching contributions (although some plans have a much faster vesting schedule).

When you terminate employment, you can generally leave your money in your 401(k) plan, although some plans require that you withdraw your funds when you reach the plan’s normal retirement age (typically age 65). (You generally must begin taking distributions after you reach age 72.) Your plan may also cash you out if your vested balance is $5,000 or less, but if your payment is more than $1,000, the plan must generally roll your funds into an IRA established on your behalf, unless you elect to receive your payment in cash. (This $1,000 limit is determined separately for your Roth 401(k) account and the rest of your funds in the 401(k) plan.)

You can also roll all or part of your Roth 401(k) dollars over to a Roth IRA, and your non-Roth dollars to a traditional IRA. You may also be able to convert your non-Roth dollars to a Roth IRA, but income taxes will apply to any tax-deferred amounts in the year of conversion. You may also be able to roll your funds into another employer’s plans that accepts rollovers.

Finally, you may also be able to take a cash distribution of your contributions and earnings, as well as any vested employer amounts. However, keep in mind that any tax-deferred funds will be subject to income taxes and a possible 10 percent penalty tax if you’re under age 59½ and an exception does not apply.

Note: When considering a rollover, to either an IRA or to another employer’s retirement plan, you should consider carefully the investment options, fees and expenses, services, ability to make penalty-free withdrawals, degree of creditor protection, and distribution requirements associated with each option.

What Else Do I Need to Know?

Employers aren’t required to make Roth contributions available in their 401(k) plans. So be sure to ask your employer if they are considering adding this exciting new feature to your 401(k) plan.

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.

When you contribute to a 529 plan, you’ll not only help your child, grandchild, or other loved one pay for school, but you’ll also remove money from your taxable estate. This will help you minimize your tax liability and preserve more of your estate for your loved ones after you die. So, if you’re thinking about contributing money to a 529 plan, it pays to understand the gift and estate tax rules.

Overview of Gift and Estate Tax Rules

If you give away money or property during your life, you may be subject to federal gift tax (these transfers may also be subject to tax at the state level).

Federal gift tax generally applies if you give someone more than the annual gift tax exclusion amount, currently $16,000, during the tax year. (There are several exceptions, though, including gifts you make to your spouse.) That means you can give up to $16,000 each year, to as many individuals as you like, federal gift tax free.

In addition, you’re allowed an applicable exclusion amount that effectively exempts around $12,060,000 in 2022 for total lifetime gifts and bequests made at death.

Note: State tax treatment may differ from federal tax treatment, so look to the laws of your state to find out how your state will treat a 529 plan gift.

Contributions to a 529 Plan Treated as Gifts to the Beneficiary

A contribution to a 529 plan is treated under the federal gift tax rules as a completed gift from the donor to the designated beneficiary of the account. Such contributions are considered present interest gifts (as opposed to future or conditional gifts) and qualify for the annual federal gift tax exclusion. In 2022, this means you can contribute up to $16,000 to the 529 account of any beneficiary without incurring federal gift tax.

So, if you contribute $25,000 to your grandchild’s 529 plan in a given year, for example, you’d ordinarily apply this contribution against your $16,000 annual gift tax exclusion. This means that although you’d theoretically need to report the entire $25,000 gift on a federal gift tax return, you’d show that only $9,000 is taxable. Bear in mind, though, that you must use up your federal applicable exclusion amount (about $12,060,000 in 2022) before you’d actually have to pay gift tax.

Special Rule If You Contribute a Lump Sum

Section 529 plans offer a special gifting feature. Specifically, you can make a lump-sum contribution to a 529 plan of up to five times the annual gift tax exclusion ($80,000 in 2022), elect to spread the gift evenly over five years, and completely avoid federal gift tax, provided no other gifts are made to the same beneficiary during the five-year period. A married couple can gift up to $160,000.

For example, if you contribute $80,000 to your grandchild’s 529 account in one year and make the election, your contribution will be treated as if you’d made a $16,000 gift for each year of a five-year period. That way, your $80,000 gift would be nontaxable (assuming you don’t make any additional gifts to your grandchild in any of those five years).

If you contribute more than $80,000 ($160,000 for joint gifts) to a particular beneficiary’s 529 plan in one year, the averaging election applies only to the first $80,000 ($160,000 for joint gifts); the remainder is treated as a gift in the year the contribution is made.

What about Gifts from a Grandparent?

Grandparents need to keep the federal generation-skipping transfer tax (GSTT) in mind when contributing to a grandchild’s 529 account. The GSTT is a tax on transfers made during your life and at your death to someone who is more than one generation below you, such as a grandchild. The GSTT is imposed in addition to (not instead of) federal gift and estate tax. Like the basic gift tax exclusion amount, though, there is a GSTT exemption (also about $12,060,000 in 2022). No GSTT will be due until you’ve used up your GSTT exemption, and no gift tax will be due until you’ve used up your applicable exclusion amount.

If you contribute no more than $16,000 to your grandchild’s 529 account during the tax year (and have made no other gifts to your grandchild that year), there will be no federal tax consequences—your gift qualifies for the annual federal gift tax exclusion, and it is also excluded for purposes of the GSTT.

If you contribute more than $16,000, you can elect to treat your contribution as if made evenly over a five-year period (as discussed previously). Only the portion that causes a federal gift tax will also result in a GSTT.

Note: Contributions to a 529 account may affect your eligibility for Medicaid. Contact an experienced elder law attorney for more information.

What If the Owner of a 529 Account Dies?

If the owner of a 529 account dies, the value of the 529 account will not usually be included in his or her estate. Instead, the value of the account will be included in the estate of the designated beneficiary of the 529 account.

There is an exception, though, if you made the five-year election (as described previously) and died before the five-year period ended. In this case, the portion of the contribution allocated to the years after your death would be included in your federal gross estate. For example, assume you made a $50,000 contribution to a 529 savings plan in Year 1 and elected to treat the gift as if made evenly over five years. You die in Year 2. Your Year 1 and Year 2 contributions of $10,000 each ($50,000 divided by 5 years) are not part of your federal gross estate. The remaining $30,000 would be included in your gross estate.

Some states have an estate tax like the federal estate tax; other states calculate estate taxes differently. Review the rules in your state so you know how your 529 account will be taxed at your death.

When the account owner dies, the terms of the 529 plan will control who becomes the new account owner. Some states permit the account owner to name a contingent account owner, who’d assume all rights if the original account owner dies. In other states, account ownership may pass to the designated beneficiary. Alternatively, the account may be considered part of the account owner’s probate estate and may pass according to a will (or through the state’s intestacy laws if there is no will).

What If the Beneficiary of a 529 Account Dies?

If the designated beneficiary of your 529 account dies, look to the rules of your plan for control issues. Generally, the account owner retains control of the account. The account owner may be able to name a new beneficiary or else make a withdrawal from the account. The earnings portion of the withdrawal would be taxable, but you won’t be charged a penalty for terminating an account upon the death of the beneficiary.

Keep in mind that if the beneficiary dies with a 529 balance, the balance may be included in the beneficiary’s taxable estate.

Note: Before investing in a 529 plan, please consider the investment objectives, risks, charges, and expenses carefully. The official disclosure statements and applicable prospectuses, which contain this and other information about the investment options, underlying investments, and investment company, can be obtained by contacting your financial professional. You should read these materials carefully before investing. As with other investments, there are generally fees and expenses associated with participation in a 529 plan. There is also the risk that the investments may lose money or not perform well enough to cover college costs as anticipated. Investment earnings accumulate on a tax-deferred basis, and withdrawals are tax-free as long as they are used for qualified education expenses. For withdrawals not used for qualified education expenses, earnings may be subject to taxation as ordinary income and possibly a 10 percent federal income tax penalty. The tax implications of a 529 plan should be discussed with your legal and/or tax professionals because they can vary significantly from state to state. Also be aware that most states offer their own 529 plans, which may provide advantages and benefits exclusively for their residents and taxpayers. These other state benefits may include financial aid, scholarship funds, and protection from creditors.

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.

By definition, estate planning is a process designed to help you manage and preserve your assets while you are alive, and to conserve and control their distribution after your death according to your goals and objectives. But what estate planning means to you specifically depends on who you are. Your age, health, wealth, lifestyle, life stage, goals, and many other factors determine your particular estate planning needs. For example, you may have a small estate and may be concerned only that certain people receive particular things. A simple will is probably all you’ll need. Or, you may have a large estate, and minimizing any potential estate tax impact is your foremost goal. Here, you’ll need to use more sophisticated techniques in your estate plan, such as a trust.

To help you understand what estate planning means to you, the following sections address some estate planning needs that are common among some very broad groups of individuals. Think of these suggestions as simply a point in the right direction, and then seek professional advice to implement the right plan for you.

Over 18

Since incapacity can strike anyone at anytime, all adults over 18 should consider having:

A durable power of attorney: This document lets you name someone to manage your property for you in case you become incapacitated and cannot do so.

An advance medical directive: The three main types of advance medical directives are (1) a living will, (2) a durable power of attorney for health care (also known as a health-care proxy), and (3) a Do Not Resuscitate order. Be aware that not all states allow each kind of medical directive, so make sure you execute one that will be effective for you.

Young and Single

If you’re young and single, you may not need much estate planning. But if you have some material possessions, you should at least write a will. If you don’t, the wealth you leave behind if you die will likely go to your parents, and that might not be what you would want. A will lets you leave your possessions to anyone you choose (e.g., your significant other, siblings, other relatives, or favorite charity).

Unmarried Couples

You’ve committed to a life partner but aren’t legally married. For you, a will is essential if you want your property to pass to your partner at your death. Without a will, state law directs that only your closest relatives will inherit your property, and your partner may get nothing. If you share certain property, such as a house or car, you may consider owning the property as joint tenants with rights of survivorship. That way, when one of you dies, the jointly held property will pass to the surviving partner automatically.

Married Couples

For many years, married couples had to do careful estate planning, such as the creation of a credit shelter trust, in order to take advantage of their combined federal estate tax exclusions. For decedents dying in 2011 and later years, the executor of a deceased spouse’s estate can transfer any unused estate tax exclusion amount to the surviving spouse without such planning.

You may be inclined to rely on these portability rules for estate tax avoidance, using outright bequests to your spouse instead of traditional trust planning. However, portability should not be relied upon solely for utilization of the first to die’s estate tax exclusion, and a credit shelter trust created at the first spouse’s death may still be advantageous for several reasons:

Married couples where one spouse is not a U.S. citizen have special planning concerns. The marital deduction is not allowed if the recipient spouse is a non-citizen spouse (but a $164,000 annual exclusion, for 2022 ($159,000 for 2021), is allowed). If certain requirements are met, however, a transfer to a qualified domestic trust (QDOT) will qualify for the marital deduction.

Married with Children

If you’re married and have children, you and your spouse should each have your own will. For you, wills are vital because you can name a guardian for your minor children in case both of you die simultaneously. If you fail to name a guardian in your will, a court may appoint someone you might not have chosen. Furthermore, without a will, some states dictate that at your death some of your property goes to your children and not to your spouse. If minor children inherit directly, the surviving parent will need court permission to manage the money for them.

You may also want to consult an attorney about establishing a trust to manage your children’s assets in the event that both you and your spouse die at the same time.

You may also need life insurance. Your surviving spouse may not be able to support the family on his or her own and may need to replace your earnings to maintain the family.

Comfortable and Looking Forward to Retirement

If you’re in your 30s, you may be feeling comfortable. You’ve accumulated some wealth and you’re thinking about retirement. Here’s where estate planning overlaps with retirement planning. It’s just as important to plan to care for yourself during your retirement as it is to plan to provide for your beneficiaries after your death. You should keep in mind that even though Social Security may be around when you retire, those benefits alone may not provide enough income for your retirement years. Consider saving some of your accumulated wealth using other retirement and deferred vehicles, such as an individual retirement account (IRA).

Wealthy and Worried

Depending on the size of your estate, you may need to be concerned about estate taxes.

For 2022, $12,060,000 ($11,700,000 for 2021) is effectively excluded from the federal gift and estate tax. Estates over that amount may be subject to the tax at a top rate of 40 percent.

Similarly, there is another tax, called the generation-skipping transfer (GST) tax, that is imposed on transfers of wealth made to grandchildren (and lower generations). For 2022, the GST tax exemption is also $12,060,000 ($11,700,000 for 2021), and the top tax rate is 40 percent.

Note: The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, signed into law in December 2017, doubled the gift and estate tax basic exclusion amount and the GST tax exemption to $11,180,000 in 2018. After 2025, they are scheduled to revert to their pre-2018 levels and cut by about one-half.

Whether your estate will be subject to state death taxes depends on the size of your estate and the tax laws in effect in the state in which you are domiciled.

Elderly or Ill

If you’re elderly or ill, you’ll want to write a will or update your existing one, consider a revocable living trust, and make sure you have a durable power of attorney and a health-care directive. Talk with your family about your wishes, and make sure they have copies of your important papers or know where to locate them.

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.

Annuities are fairly straightforward products as far as taxation is concerned. To the extent that a distribution is considered a return of your investment in the contract, no income tax is due; to the extent that a distribution is considered earnings, income tax is due (ordinary, not capital gains). In addition, a distribution taken before age 59½ is subject to a 10 percent early withdrawal penalty tax on the earnings.

However, there are several ways to trigger an unexpected taxable event. Such an event can happen when you transfer the ownership of an annuity, or if your corporation purchases an annuity. You should also be aware of the rules regarding the taxation of annuity payments made to your beneficiaries.

Gifts of Annuity Contracts

If you own an annuity and give it to another individual as a gift, special income tax rules apply. You (the donor) are considered to have surrendered the contract and are subject to tax on the difference between the value of the contract (the cash surrender value) and the amount you have invested in the contract. So, if you’ve made a $70,000 investment in the contract, and the contract is worth $100,000 at the time of the gift, you would be subject to income tax on $30,000 (you would also be subject to regular gift tax rules on the entire $100,000 gift). Note that there is no taxable liability to the person who receives the annuity.

Non-Natural Persons

The non-natural person rule applies to deferred annuity contracts owned by corporations, trusts, and other entities.

The rule provides that if a nonhuman entity owns an annuity contract, the buildup in the contract is taxable each year to the owner, thus defeating the tax benefits of annuity ownership.

The rule has many exceptions, though, and does not apply to many common situations. For example, it does not apply where the estate of a deceased annuity owner owns the annuity. It also does not apply when an IRA or a qualified retirement plan owns the annuity contract.

In addition, there is an exception when a non-natural entity owns an annuity contract as agent for a natural person. This rule has been applied to annuity ownership by the trustees of trusts for the benefit of individuals.

Clearly, a tax professional should be consulted before putting any annuity into a trust.

Beneficiaries and Taxes

Payment after annuitization: In cases where the annuitant dies while receiving benefits under a term-certain annuity payout (i.e., payments continue for a given period of time even after the annuitant dies), the remaining payments are made to the beneficiary. The beneficiary is subject to the same tax rules as was the annuitant. A portion of each payment is considered a return of your investment in the contract, for which no income tax is due; and a portion of each payment is considered earnings, for which ordinary (not capital gains) income tax is due.

Payments before annuitization: In cases where the annuitant dies before annuitization (i.e., during the accumulation phase), any gain in the contract is recognized, and taxes are due on that amount. If the owner and the annuitant are the same, the estate of the owner will owe ordinary income taxes on the gain, and the annuity value will be included in the estate. The estate will be entitled to a tax deduction on the decedent’s final income tax return for the additional estate tax (if any) attributable to the annuity value on the decedent’s estate tax return.

If the annuity proceeds are paid to a named beneficiary, the tax on the gain in the contract is transferred to the beneficiary. The beneficiary will be entitled to a tax deduction on the beneficiary’s current income tax return for the additional estate tax (if any) attributable to the annuity value on the decedent’s estate tax return.

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.

An annuity is a contract between you, the purchaser or owner, and an insurance company, the annuity issuer. In its simplest form, you pay money to an annuity issuer, and the issuer pays out the principal and earnings back to you or to a named beneficiary. Life insurance companies first developed annuities to provide income to individuals during their retirement years.

Annuities are either qualified or nonqualified. Qualified annuities are used in connection with tax-advantaged retirement plans, such as 401(k) plans, Section 403(b) retirement plans (TSAs), or IRAs. Qualified annuities are subject to the contribution, withdrawal, and tax rules that apply to tax-advantaged retirement plans. One of the attractive aspects of a nonqualified annuity is that its earnings are tax deferred until you begin to receive payments back from the annuity issuer. In this respect, an annuity is similar to a qualified retirement plan. Over a long period of time, your investment in an annuity can grow substantially larger than if you had invested money in a comparable taxable investment. Like a qualified retirement plan, a 10 percent tax penalty on the taxable portion of the distribution may be imposed if you begin withdrawals from an annuity before age 59½. Unlike a qualified retirement plan, contributions to a nonqualified annuity are not tax deductible, and taxes are paid only on the earnings when distributed.

Four Parties to an Annuity Contract

There are four parties to an annuity contract: the annuity issuer, the owner, the annuitant, and the beneficiary. The annuity issuer is the company (e.g., an insurance company) that issues the annuity. The owner is the individual or other entity who buys the annuity from the annuity issuer and makes the contributions to the annuity. The annuitant is the individual whose life will be used as the measuring life for determining the timing and amount of distribution benefits that will be paid out. The owner and the annuitant are usually the same person but do not have to be. Finally, the beneficiary is the person who receives a death benefit from the annuity at the death of the annuitant.

Two Distinct Phases to an Annuity

There are two distinct phases to an annuity: (1) the accumulation (or investment) phase and (2) the distribution phase.

The accumulation (or investment) phase is the time period when you add money to the annuity. When using this option, you’ll have purchased a deferred annuity. You can purchase the annuity in one lump sum (known as a single premium annuity), or you make investments periodically, over time.

The distribution phase is when you begin receiving distributions from the annuity. You have two general options for receiving distributions from your annuity. Under the first option, you can withdraw some or all of the money in the annuity in lump sums.

The second option (commonly referred to as the guaranteed income or annuitization option) provides you with a guaranteed income stream from the annuity for your entire lifetime (no matter how long you live) or for a specific period of time (e.g., ten years). (Guarantees are based on the claims-paying ability of the issuing insurance company.) This option generally can be elected several years after you purchased your deferred annuity. Or, if you want to invest in an annuity and start receiving payments within the first year, you’ll purchase what is known as an immediate annuity.

You can also elect to receive the annuity payments over both your lifetime and the lifetime of another person. This option is known as a joint and survivor annuity. Under a joint and survivor annuity, the annuity issuer promises to pay you an amount of money on a periodic basis (e.g., monthly, quarterly, or yearly). The amount you receive for each payment period will depend on how much money you have in the annuity, how earnings are credited to your account (whether fixed or variable), and the age at which you begin the annuitization phase. The length of the distribution period will also affect how much you receive.

When Is an Annuity Appropriate?

It is important to understand that annuities can be an excellent tool if you use them properly. Annuities are not right for everyone.

Nonqualified annuity contributions are not tax deductible. That’s why most experts advise funding other retirement plans first. However, if you have already contributed the maximum allowable amount to other available retirement plans, an annuity can be an excellent choice. There is no limit to how much you can invest in a nonqualified annuity, and like other qualified retirement plans, the funds are allowed to grow tax deferred until you begin taking distributions.

Annuities are designed to be long-term investment vehicles. In most cases, you’ll pay a penalty for early withdrawals. And if you take a lump-sum distribution of your annuity funds within the first few years after purchasing your annuity, you may be subject to surrender charges imposed by the issuer. As long as you’re sure you won’t need the money until at least age 59½, an annuity is worth considering. If your needs are more short term, you should explore other options.

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.

529 plans are tax-advantaged education savings vehicles and one of the most popular ways to save for education today. Much like the way 401(k) plans revolutionized the world of retirement savings a few decades ago, 529 plans have changed the world of education savings.

An Overview of 529 Plans

Congress created 529 plans in 1996 in a piece of legislation that had little to do with college—the Small Business Job Protection Act. Known officially as qualified tuition programs, or QTPs, under federal law, 529 plans get their more common name from section 529 of the Internal Revenue Code, which governs their existence. Over the years, 529 plans have been modified by various pieces of legislation.

529 plans are governed by federal law but run by states through designated financial institutions who manage and administer specific plans. There are actually two types of 529 plans—savings plans and prepaid tuition plans. The tax advantages of each are the same, but the account features are very different. 529 savings plans are far more common.

529 Savings Plans

A 529 savings plan is an individual investment account, similar to a 401(k) plan, where you contribute money for college or K-12 tuition. To open an account, you fill out an application, where you choose a beneficiary and select one or more of the plan’s investment options. Then you simply decide when, and how much, to contribute.

529 savings plans offer a unique combination of features that no other education savings vehicle can match:

529 Prepaid Tuition Plans

A 529 prepaid tuition plan lets you save money for college, too. But it works quite differently than a 529 savings plan. Prepaid tuition plans are generally sponsored by states on behalf of in-state public colleges and, less commonly, by private colleges. For state-sponsored prepaid tuition plans, you are limited to the plan offered by your state. Only a handful of states offer prepaid tuition plans.

A prepaid tuition plan lets you prepay tuition expenses now at participating colleges, typically in-state public colleges, for use in the future. The plan’s money manager pools your contributions with those from other investors into one general fund. The fund assets are then invested to meet the plan’s future obligations. Some plans may guarantee you a minimum rate of return; others may not. At a minimum, the plan hopes to earn an annual return at least equal to the annual rate of college inflation for the most expensive college in the plan.

The most common type of prepaid tuition plan is a contract plan. With a contract plan, in exchange for your up-front cash payment (or series of payments), the plan promises to cover a predetermined amount of future tuition costs at a particular college in the plan. For example, if your up-front cash payment buys you three years’ worth of tuition at College ABC today, the plan might promise to cover two and a half years of tuition in the future. Plans have different criteria for determining how much they’ll pay out in the future. And if your beneficiary attends a school that isn’t in the prepaid plan, you’ll typically receive a lesser amount according to a predetermined formula.

The other type of prepaid tuition plan is a unit plan. With a unit plan, you purchase units or credits that represent a percentage (typically 1 percent) of the average yearly tuition costs at the plan’s participating colleges. Instead of having a predetermined value, these units or credits fluctuate in value each year according to the average tuition increases for that year. You then redeem your units or credits in the future to pay tuition costs; many plans also let you use them for room and board, books, and other supplies.

Note: It’s important to understand what will happen if your prepaid plan’s investment returns don’t keep pace with tuition increases at the colleges participating in the plan. Will your tuition guarantee be in jeopardy? Will your future purchases be limited or more expensive?

What Are the Drawbacks of 529 Plans?

Here are some drawbacks of 529 plans:

Note: Before investing in a 529 plan, please consider the investment objectives, risks, charges, and expenses carefully. The official disclosure statements and applicable prospectuses, which contain this and other information about the investment options, underlying investments, and investment company, can be obtained by contacting your financial professional. You should read these materials carefully before investing. As with other investments, there are generally fees and expenses associated with participation in a 529 plan. There is also the risk that the investments may lose money or not perform well enough to cover college costs as anticipated. Investment earnings accumulate on a tax-deferred basis, and withdrawals are tax-free as long as they are used for qualified education expenses. For withdrawals not used for qualified education expenses, earnings may be subject to taxation as ordinary income and possibly a 10 percent federal income tax penalty. The tax implications of a 529 plan should be discussed with your legal and/or tax professionals because they can vary significantly from state to state. Also be aware that most states offer their own 529 plans, which may provide advantages and benefits exclusively for their residents and taxpayers. These other state benefits may include financial aid, scholarship funds, and protection from creditors.

Source: Broadridge Investor Communication Solutions, Inc.